Diversity of Alternaria-derived toxins and their toxicodynamic and toxicokinetic characteristics in the food chain

The Alternaria genus comprises more than 250 fungal species among which pathogenic species cause diseases in economically important crops and contaminate food via secreted toxins. Among these host-specific toxins (HSTs) generally harm specific plants, while certain non-host-specific toxins (nHSTs) have significant mutagenic and cytotoxic effects on humans and other vertebrates. Alternaria spp. tend to accumulate mycotoxins in food and food products, causing spoilage in fields during harvesting, postharvest stages, and storage. Changing climatic conditions and large cultivation areas led to a rise in Alternaria mycotoxins, with vegetarians being more frequently exposed. There is limited information on the toxicity incidence, absorption, excretion, and distribution of these mycotoxins in farms and domesticated animals; therefore, further investigation is required. This review covers current studies on the toxic effects of Alternaria mycotoxins, including genotoxicity, teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity, cytotoxicity, DNA damage, carcinogenicity, and immunosuppressive role. The toxicokinetic properties of these mycotoxins were explored, based on both in vitro and in vivo investigations. Combined effects of Alternaria mycotoxins with other mycotoxins in food are not well studied and can vary widely, showing synergistic, additive, or antagonistic interactions based on the specific combinations involved. The data presented here could strengthen risk assessment for Alternaria mycotoxins by emphasizing the need to minimize contact between contaminated and uncontaminated food and establish appropriate measures to ensure food safety.