Intrinsic motivation, future orientation, and financial stress: a student-centered model of metaverse classroom adoption in low-income contexts

The rapid rise of immersive technologies has placed metaverse-based classrooms at the center of higher education innovation. Yet, little is known about how students in low-income contexts perceive and adopt these platforms, particularly when motivation, career goals, and financial pressures intersect. This study develops and tests a student-focused model that integrates intrinsic motivation, future time perspective, career relevance, and financial stress to explain behavioral intention toward metaverse adoption. A survey of 292 university students in Jordan—a lower-income national setting—was analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Results showed all hypothesized paths were significant. Future time perspective and career relevance enhanced intrinsic motivation, while financial stress unexpectedly contributed positively, suggesting that students facing economic hardship may view the Metaverse as an avenue for advancement. Intrinsic motivation strongly predicted adoption intention. The model demonstrated reliability, validity, and predictive relevance. These findings highlight the need to incorporate both psychological and contextual dimensions in technology adoption research. The study contributes theoretically and practically by illustrating how future-oriented thinking and inner drive can counterbalance economic barriers, offering guidance for educators, designers, and policymakers seeking equitable immersive learning solutions.