Pickering stabilization of double emulsions: Basic concepts, rationale, preparation, potential applications, challenges, and future perspectives

Double emulsions (DEs) offer unique compartmentalized structures but are inherently unstable, prompting significant scientific and industrial efforts to enhance their stability. One promising strategy is the use of solid particles—known as Pickering stabilization—resulting in Pickering double emulsions (PDEs), which overcome many limitations of conventional low-molecular-weight (LMW) surfactants. However, the term “Pickering” is often misused in the literature to describe any formulation containing particles, regardless of whether the interface is fully stabilized by them. This review aims to clarify the concept of Pickering stabilization, outline the rationale for its application to DEs, and examine preparation mechanisms, interfacial approaches, potential applications, and current challenges. Particles with dual wettability and high desorption energy irreversibly adsorb at interfaces, forming robust mechanical barriers that inhibit coalescence and reduce diffusion or escape of internal droplets. PDEs can be prepared via two-step emulsification, one-step processes, or advanced microfluidic methods. A variety of Pickering approaches have been developed to engineer particles capable of dual interfacial stabilization, enabling sophisticated functions such as (co-)encapsulation, controlled release, and the formation of hierarchical structures like microspheres, colloidosomes, and antibubbles. To unlock the full potential of PDEs for industrial applications, future research should prioritize eliminating surfactant use, developing safe and sustainable particles, and advancing scalable production methods without compromising emulsion stability or performance.